Employment And Gender Equity Sociology Essay

Employment And Gender Equity Sociology Essay Introduction: Although there is a significant progress that has been achieved to gender equality in the labor market over recent decades and women are moving steadily into occupations that have been reserved for men and have managed to overcome the institutional discrimination that prevents them from certain jobs that hinders their career development, but there are many obstacles remain and rooted in the way that the work itself is organized or in the challenges that face women who try to reconcile work and family commitments or for cultural and religious reasons that have social / cultural and anthropological aspects. Women are still concentrated in the most unsteady forms of work and still far reaching from getting equal working opportunities, facing the phenomenon of glass ceiling which hinders them to get into high positions. Women worldwide have achieved higher levels of education than ever before and represent more than 35% of the global workforce in 2007  [1]  . The majority of top management positions in almost all countries are primarily held by men while female managers are holding lower management positions with less authority than men. It is something goes beyond just sex differences. Although women in general may be less emphasis on career success than men, but there are considerable huge number of professional women seeking top management positions and are unable to get them. Women seeking top managerial positions levels face large amount of challenges and may require different skills to be successful in the work place than their male counterparts. The causes are varies depending upon the size of the organization, level of management, and requisite job duties. Gender mainstreaming has been defined  [2]  as a process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programs, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making the concerns and experiences of women as well as of men an integral part of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and societal spheres, so that women and men benefit equally, and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal of mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality. Gender mainstreaming is a synthesizing concept that addresses the well being of women and men. It is a strategy that is central to the interests of the whole community. Although men and women are entering the labor force in equal numbers and qualifications, but the majority of top management positions still belong to men, and women share of management positions remains unacceptably low. Perception of Gender Roles: In 1960s-1970s, liberation movement has helped in changing the public perception of traditional gender roles. The introduction of the Equal Employment Organization, Affirmative Action, and Discrimination Laws helped shape public awareness. Although economic roles between men and women have become more similar over time, sex differences are still prevalent and tensions still exist in the workplace. In the United States in 2003, the most significant difference between men and women in the workforce is between Hispanic men and women 76% to 56% and the lowest difference is between black men and women (only 6% difference)  [3]  . There is a huge amount of theories explaining why sex differences exist, but most can be categorized in supporting either a nature or nurture theory. Those that support biological factors argue that people behave as they do because they are biologically male or female. Those that support the nurture approach view social-environmental factors as influencing be havior and believe that biological sex has very little to do with how people behave. What comprise sex discrimination? Article 11 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), states that appropriate measures should be taken to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of employment in order to ensure, on the basis of equality of men and women. The US Civil Right Act of 1964 provides strong protections against sex discrimination  [4]  . In modern societies, skilled women have the power, right and ability to compete with every field engaged with men including, employment, athletics, academics and politics without sex discrimination. Unfortunately, there is a fundamental nature all around the world to keep womens salaries lower and opportunities fewer in the employment realm. Less common, men too can be subjected to unlawful sex discrimination regardless the shape and form it takes. Unequal pay and discriminatory job standards on the basis of sex discrimination are prohibited by law. Unequal treatment on the basis of sex is the core of sex discrimination. Se parate rest rooms, does not constitute sex discrimination, but it is sex discrimination to provide different working conditions, salaries, hiring, promotion or bonus criteria to women and men. Everyone, men and women has the right to secure and perform their jobs free of unwanted demands for romantic or sexual relationships, or unwanted communications or behaviors of a sexual nature that interfere with their ability to work. Another form of unlawful discrimination is the workplace harassment. It is not enough for employers to offer his women and men employee equal pay and opportunities; they must also remedy any sexual harassment situations that are known such as: Harassment of lower-tier employees by a manager or executive of lower position. Sexual harassment among coworkers. Harassment involves unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. Make sexual conduct a condition or term of employment, to base employment decisions on such conduct, or to permit sexual conduct that unreasonably interferes with an employees work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive work environment. Offensive or rude comments, unwanted touching, displays of sexual objects or photographs, or offensive cartoons or drawings may constitute sexual harassment when they interfere with an individuals work performance. Is there a real limitation on women employment capabilities? The role of men and women in the society is clearly segregated. This division of role is part of division of labor. Unfortunately the nature of division of labor between men and women became too firm and continued to persist when it was no longer appropriate. The initial division of labor between men and women was primarily influenced by the child bearing role of women and their lower average of their physical strength. These differences in characteristics have not changed and the importance in division of labor becomes marginal. The most important requirements for most important jobs are mental capacities that both men and women have. With changing technologies and social structure, women are not tied down to the home to the same extent for performing their child bearing role. Changes in economic structure and culture have greatly reduced the importance and need for domestic duties. Therefore, most of the jobs today can be equally carried out quite well by men or women. For some jobs, it can be performed better by women because of their thin fingers and other jobs can be carried out better by men for it require heavy or physical manual labor. Women continued to encounter obstacles in first getting employment and advancing in jobs although of the change in the reality that women become equal to men. These obstacles can be referred to two main reasons. Women were not encouraged to acquire the education and skills that are needed to do many jobs. There was a cultural resistance in certain societies against women carrying out many of the jobs performed by men. This resistance came not only from men, but from women too, describing them as unladylike. Women employment situation today has considerably improved and these obstacles are no longer serious enough to be a significant barrier for women with a little determination. Ascendancy of so many women across the world occupying senior most position in government and business, including as prime ministers of countries and chief Executives officers of large corporation is a testimony to this fact. The Glass Ceiling and its Causes Although women are entering the labor force in large scale, but they cannot reach top managerial level positions that oppressed by men. About 70 percent of women and 57 percent of men believe that an invisible barrier, the glass ceiling (a term coined in 1986 by the Wall Street Journal), prevents women from advancing to top positions  [5]  . There are varied causes of the glass ceiling. Some refer the causes to self-imposed by some women for choosing for example to work fewer hours than men in order to spend more time with their families. Women measure their success in the workplace differently than men while men tend to measure success by high salaries and important job titles whereas women place a higher value on their relationships with colleagues and community service. Others refer the glass ceiling cause in organizations to the good old boy network when deciding who to promote in these organizations, women are often not even considered. The majority of employees in any companies or organizations have a life outside the office. These companies or organizations that are called family friendly organizations recognize this fact and introduce to their employees options such as flex-time, onsite child care, employee-assistance programs, and telecommuting to allow them to have a better chance to accommodate and balancing their home and work lives. But the problem lies in fact that some employees have no children, no family obligations and do not want to work in a family-friendly organization dislike their organization offering services that do not apply to them. To determining what employees want in the work place is to determine how people define career success. Men and women use different types of measures when determining what makes a career successful. Men focus on earnings, promotional opportunities and success while women focus on positive interpersonal relationships and feelings  [6]  . There are also difference between men and women in their career gaps. Women not like the men in regards that they are more likely to take a leave of absence and work a part-time job. Organizations need to adopt a culture that will allow them to stay competitive but also allows their employees to maintain a balance with their lives outside of the office. Employees should take advantage of work-family programs offered but women may feel reluctant to take advantage of these programs as they feel it may lessen their chance for success within the company. Extensive travel is another issue that women must face when considering executive jobs within an organization. Women have to find a solution on how to balance and accommodate family and work life and deal with doing business in countries like Saudi Arabia as an example that might not be as receptive to women in top positions. Although that video and teleconferencing has given companies as well as managers on the top of the companys hierarchy the ability to offer alternatives to extensive travel but they will not replace face to face meetings for relationship building and contract negotiations. Great efforts were made by women to knock on the glass ceiling but have not quite broken through it yet. It is true in high business companies where women represent less than 10% of executive positions  [7]  while they were represent almost 50% of worldwide workforce. This concludes discrimination due to hiring practices. Women will continue to push towards breaking the boundaries of their employment discrimination until companies recognize the value in securing a diverse work force. The glass ceiling may not be shattered for some time, but there are more holes in it than ever before. Gender Inequality in the Economy Around 200 million women worldwide have managed to find jobs in the last decade. In 2007, working women were 1.2 billion and men 1.8 billion but still the number of unemployed women increased from70.2 to 81.6 million  [8]  . If equitable and sustainable progress is to be achieved, womens status must be improved, their rights must be respected, and their contributions must be recognized. Women freedom has improved and has more power than before. However, they are still disadvantaged not receiving the full rights compared to men in virtually all aspects of life. Women, in developing countries in particular, often lack the education and skills necessary to gain employment in more lucrative sectors. The reasons can be summarized to the following categories: Capacity: Girls likely are less than boys enrolled in primary school and less likely to attend irregularly or not at all. If gender gap exists in primary school, it widens dramatically when it comes to secondary and higher education. Girls and women are vastly overrepresented among the worlds illiterate. Women are less likely to receive professional or vocational training once employed, significantly limiting their chances at promotion and success.   Even when resources are made available to women in the form of microcredit and help with starting small businesses, business management practices are not generally taught.   Most women-owned microenterprises do not experience growth beyond subsistence level. Access to Resources Women have not much access to resources necessary to start and grow businesses. Divorce, inheritance, and land laws often discriminate against women and girls, robbing them of valuable capital and property. Without capital, women are often unable to obtain credit, an absolute necessity of business transactions.    Decision-Making Women often lack of ability to act as their own agents of change and improvement. Women are often underrepresented in positions of power and influence, and are less likely to be able to effectively pursue and protect their interests.    Women lack accessibility to informal channels of power and influence. Household Responsibilities Women are generally responsible for the majority of unpaid work associated with care of the home, children, and the elderly. Household responsibilities thus take away from the time women have to spend in paid employment, whether full-time or part-time.   This reduces female earning power and economic status. Norms and Stereotypes Even when laws prevent official employment discrimination, the participation of women in a diverse range of jobs, gender inequality may still result from cultural norms, stereotypes, and traditions. Economic activity cannot be separated from the socio-cultural context occurred from families to communities.   Values, norms and attitudes shape both hiring and job-seeking; choices are made by men and women alike that serve to economically marginalize many women. Muslim women are not permitted to leave the house while western women strive to balance traditional motherhood with work. Policies to enhance gender mainstreaming at workplace: Recruitment policies or processes should be the same, clearly written and phrases not to discriminate employee on the basis of race, color, national, ethnic origin, gender, religion, disability, etc  . Non discrimination policy encompasses the operation of any work programs or activities. The law is the authority that protects anyone from being directly or indirectly discriminated  [9]  . Direct discrimination would include treating somebody differently and less favorably than others on the bases of gender, indirect discrimination that would include rules and working regulations within the workplace that advantages males against females or vice versa. Anny Human Resource Manager in any organization, recruitment process usually has three stages: Announcement or advertising, selection criteria and interview, and appointment. Before creating recruitment policy, a considerable and well thought -out approach is needed rather than trying to tackle issue on an ad hoc basis. Employers should take in consideration the following recruitment principles before formulation a recruitment policy: To be objective in identifying necessary skills and qualifications of the post candidate that will be able handle the job. Avoid any discriminatory language or implications Remain open-minded. In the announcement stage, it is unlawful to publish any advert that might be understood or hold an intention of discrimination against applicants from a particular racial group or sex. Gender neutral language must be selected and used. If the post title denotes a specific gender, it is necessary to state that application will be welcome from either sex. No graphics, style or expression indicate tendency to recruit a specific gender or race. It is of paramount importance to encourage applications from all categories of the community through including an equal opportunities statement within a job advert. Sex and race are not the only areas of discrimination, but disability, religion, belief, sexual orientation, marital status and age are grounds on which a person may not be discriminated against during the recruitment process. Selection criteria and interview should be related to the requirement of the post. Employers must be clear, precise and objective in their selection. No assumption as to stereotypical requirements for the job. Because of job criteria requires physical strength, it does not mean to exclude female candidates from the selection process. Employer should consider individual wish to work on part-time basis if he or she could undertake the required job. A covered refusal will negatively affect one gender and might raise complaint for indirect sex discrimination. If the selection process falls down on the basis of gut- feeling selection, more than one person carries out the interview to ensure that discrimination do not affect the selection process. In the appointment process, some employers use system of points to remove subjectivity from the process. Job is not necessary to be offered to individual with highest points but if it is offered to who did not score higher points is discrimination with no satisfactory explanation. No legal obligation to tell applicants why they have been unsuccessful, but many employers committed to equal opportunities which enable them to explain to the candidates why they were not selected. This approach will reduce the likelihood of a claim for discrimination being made and demonstrate the objectivity and openness used in the appointment process. Gender equality promotes the equal participation of women and men in decisions making. Supporting gender equality can reduce the gap between womens and mens access to and control of resources and the benefits of development are still out of reach for most women worldwide. Women continue to have fewer rights, lower education and health status, less income, and less access to resources and decision-making than men. Nevertheless, womens critical roles in food production, income generation, and management of natural resources, community organization and domestic responsibilities are essential for sustainable development. Gender Mainstreaming and Development effectiveness In the new conceptualization of poverty reduction, access to livelihood resources, capabilities building, security against vulnerability and equality of gender have come to be viewed as one integral process of the national plans of macroeconomic and social policies to promote growth and reduce poverty  [10]  . Scholars have identified the following dimensions of poverty  [11]  +  [12]  : Lack of access to labor markets and employment opportunities and productive resources. Lack of access to capabilities and public services as education and health. Vulnerability to economic risks and to public and domestic violence, as well as constraints on mobility. Lack of representation/empowerment, being without voice and without power at the household, community and national/international levels Gender mainstreaming introduced changes that were community sanctioned and supported, precisely because they provided identifiable and visible benefits for the house hold and communities such as: improved health status, expand primary school enrollment or both girls and boys, increased harmony in households and community , greater integration of children into community life etc.. Gender mainstreaming has integrated women more fully into communities in ways that enhanced their status. Instead of withdrawal from the house hold and separation from the community, gender main streaming increased womens opportunity, collaboration and contribution to the family and to larger community. Hence, gender mainstreaming quietly challenged long held cultural traditions and practices that ruined individual and community progress. Moreover, embedded in gender mainstreaming is a flexibility that enabled individual and communities to embrace the process at their own level of comfort and need. It dealt a direct blow to poverty, leaving in its wake a change that was desired, positive, purposeful, community driven and sustainable. Gender mainstreaming encouraged total involvement of all and became the driving force for development effectiveness. Conclusion: Since the start of the womens movement, changes in social acceptance of gender equality have been primarily due to changing perceptions among women and men themselves. Gender concept must be truly understood to be promoted effectively. It is neither an easy nor a straight forward process. It requires efforts to reduce gender inequities, whether they favor men or women. A true understanding to gender approach would eliminate gender gap, on the basis that no gender inequality is good either for individuals or the society as a whole. Gender interventions should not stop at gender equality; it should promote positive synergies that will act throughout the social system as generators of development. Gender equality should be seen within a dynamic system of relations embedded in a development process that seeks to empower its actors. The spread and enforcement of equal opportunity laws have lessened institutional discrimination and add considerable impact on the awareness of populations. Working women have become characterized by more continuous labor force participation. Women have entered many of the professions previously reserved for men, and their earnings have become an essential part of household income. They enjoined the choice for being independent earning that allowed them decide send their children, especially girl children to school. Womens economic empowerment emerged as key gender mainstreaming benefit and opened opportunities for womens participation in community development activities, with potential for their emergence as positive force in local and national politics.

Semantics: The Power of Language

Language is a phenomenon which allows human beings to interact in a meaningful way with one another.   Language began as a rudimentary system of hieroglyphics and has evolved into a highly complex system of the spoken and written word.   As language in both spoken and written form has developed, so has man’s understanding of it.   This understanding of both words and sentences has evolved along with the language itself and with the people who use it to create meaning.Word formation has occurred throughout time through several processes.   Words were developed initially through other languages, through etymology and then progressed into the formation of new words altogether, which can occur through a variety of means.   Next, words are arranged into sentences which carry both literal and implied meanings which can be based upon sounds and even the previous knowledge of those conversing.   In many ways, word economy has resulted by adopting new words from existing wo rds or from portions of existing words in an effort to simplify language.The process of economized words, which are words formed from existing words which then become commonly understood words in the language, is a major way in which the words of the language are formed.   Coinage is a process of inventing completely new words from a source which seems to embody its meaning. One way in which this occurs is to create the word kleenex from the brand name of Kleenex (instead of tissue) and xerox as a verb after the Xerox brand of copy machines.   Furthermore, eponyms can be created from individuals’ names such as to hoover from Hoover who invented the vacuum cleaner and the concept of the sandwich from the Earl of Sandwich (Yule, 2006).Another process of economizing words is called blending.   Blending occurs when the beginning of one word is combined with the ending of another word.   This new word then enters the language as an original word.   For example, a blended word for the product of gasoline made with alcohol is gasohol.   The meal which is a combination of breakfast and lunch has become represented with the word brunch.   Of course, this process can occur with the beginnings of two words as well.   The word modem is a blend of modulator and demodulator, and the new concept of Spanglish is the blending of English and Spanish (Yule, 2006), made even more popular by a recent motion picture of the same name.By blending words together, the meaning from the original words is already intact.   Thus, the meaning of the resulting word does not have to be suddenly relearned.   The meaning already exists because the words already exist.   In this way, the economy of the English language is maintained without the need for learning new definitions and uses.A third process of word economy is referred to as clipping.   With this process, a longer word is reduced to a shortened form of itself. This shortened from, like blending, carries the same meaning as its original.   The only difference is the shortened form of the word.   For example, the word facsimile, with its proliferation of used, has become shortened in modern language to the word fax.   Likewise, the word condo represents its initial longer form of condominium.Words that are reduced to a single syllable and then joined with an –ie or –y are a type of this process known as hypocorism.   Words like movie for moving picture, bookie for bookmaker and hankie for handkerchief are examples of this type of word economy (Yule, 2006).   This type of word economy is popular in England, where the word television has even been shortened to the popular, telly.As the process of word economy develops, some words are backformed.   Backforming is a type of word economy because it uses the same root of a word to convert it into a different part of speech.   One basic word root becomes the basis for two or even three words.   This process tak es a form of a word and reduces it to another form.For example a noun can be reduced to a verb.   From the word television, a noun, comes the verb televise.   The verb babysit was derived from babysitter.   Basically, in English, words that end in –er comprise the noun forms while the same word minus the –er make up the verbs.   An example is worker to work or player to play (Yule, 2006).   This particular backformation becomes a pattern in language, thus repeating itself over and over with new words without any additional units of meaning.This change itself is known as the process of conversion.   This process changing verb phrases into nouns and vice versa.   For example, if a secretary is ordered to print out a form, the resultant form is known as a printout.   If a company wants to take over another, they initiate a takeover.This can happen in the other direction as well a dirty room can be converted into the verb to dirty, as in â€Å"the boy dirt ied the room.†Ã‚   It can even occur from adjectives as well.   A person who is in a ballpark often, such as a player, may become a ballpark figure.   Thus a noun becomes an adjective (Yule, 2006). Again, it is easier to learn, understand and use a language if the meanings can be used in multiple situations.Anther popular method of creating words is through the use of acronyms.   These are word forms that result from the initial letters of a set of words.   A CD is the acronym for a compact disk.   A PIN is a personal identification number.   These words are constantly added as the result of different jargon such as that of business, international relations and education (Yule, 2006).   For example, NASA, INTEL, and RAM are specific to particular industries and would not exist if it were not for those industries.Finally, some words are created by combining two or more of the above techniques.   For example, English borrowed the word delicatessen from the German language and then clipped it to the Americanized deli.   The words snow and ball were compounded into the noun snowball and then converted to the verb – to snowball.   Adding the suffix –ish to the acronym formed from White Anglo Saxon Protestant results as WASPish (Yule, 2006).   All of these words now become an integral part of the language which people widely understand and use as part of their daily language.Beyond the mere creation, usage and understanding of words is the combination of words into sentences.   Many argue that words themselves would not be meaningful without the construct of a sentence to give it basic background.   Individuals generally communicate through sentences which are basically formed with a subject, verb, and a complete thought, as students are taught throughout school.   Thus, forming words into syntactical patterns and creating a context in which they are used is vital to understanding both written and spoken communication today.However, many linguists also argue that conversation can be understood in its reduced form based upon certain inherent techniques.   This enables individuals to understand conversation that is not composed of perfectly constructed sentences.   In this way, a person can understand a word as a sentence because they already understand the context of the meaning in which the word was spoken (Palmer, 1981).   Thus, sentences, too can be economized just as words can.Fragments of sentences that are closely linked in meaning can be combined in such a way that some parts of the sentence is omitted.   This is known as an elliptical formation.   One way that this happens is through analyzing both the surface structure and the deep structure of meaning.   The surface structure is a literal meaning of the sentence, while the deep structure is the figurative, implied, abstract meaning of the communication itself which may depend on former knowledge by the partners (Palmer, 1981) . Both structures are necessary to understand communication, but the deep structure may help the individual differentiate between various meanings in context.The two types of language features that are inherent in this process are prosodic and paralinguistic features.   Prosodic features deal with actual sounds of the language such as tone, stress, volume, rhythm etc.   Paralinguistic features include the visuals of language, such as the speaker’s facial expressions, gestures, etc (Palmer, 1981).   Thus, both the way the communication sounds and the visual cues of the speaker can contribute to a fuller understanding.Tone and stress is used by speakers to indicate which part of the sentence is to be given the most emphasis. This emphasis indicates the most important information of the system.   Speech acts can serve a variety of functions even while the same sentence is being uttered.   These purposes can be warnings, threats, promises, pleas, etc. and can change the meaning of any sentence.   Sentences can be insinuations which carry some inherent truthfulness in them.   The sentence/question â€Å"Do you still beat your wife?† insinuates that the subject has at one time been a wife-beater, which suggests an accusation which the speaker intends for the listeners to realize (Palmer, 1981).Other meanings are based on the relationships between the individuals.   Some conversation is meaningless and carries no specific information.   Other sentence meanings can be derived simply from its grammatical structure.   Finally, sentence meaning can be based on how the sentence is said.   Ultimately, the sentence that is truth-conditional is not concerned with grammar but with the meaning of the proposition of the sentence.   Is it based in truth or not?   For example, if someone is cited directly, that is considered more truthful than if he is cited indirectly, even though both may not be formally proven within the context of the p articular sentence (Palmer, 1981).   Ultimately, the ambiguities of language and the situations in which it exists, create the problems of interpretation which depend upon so much more than the mere words.The spoken language is far more complex than the written language.   Palmer (1981) gives four ways in which this is true.   First, human beings spoke long before they wrote.   Second, a child learns spoken language far earlier than he learns how to write.   Third, human beings speak for more during their daily lives than they write.   Finally, writing can be converted to speech without much loss; however, this process cannot happen the other way around (Palmer, 1981).The tone and stress of words was mentioned earlier as a way to decipher emphasis in spoken communication.   Combined with pitch, or the rise and fall of words, people can gain even more meaning from the exchange.   If a particular word of syllable is accented, the listened gains a particular set of mean ings which may be different if another word or syllable is accented.   This information unit (this tone group of pitch, accent, etc) counts more to the listener in terms of understanding the meaning than does the simple grammatical components of the sentence (Palmer, 1981).Rises in pitch are concerned with certain types of meanings, like indecision or questions, while falls in pitch are more concerned with statements.   Likewise, certain emotions can be expressed through intonation as well.   These meanings may vary from language to language (Palmer, 1981).The topic and comment of an utterance represents these differences.   The topic is basically the main informational unit of the sentence while the comment is the opinion or emotion attached to it.   These two units may, generally, be distinguishable from one another (Palmer, 1981).Word order is one way in which these distinctions are made.   The word at the beginning of the sentence generally indicates the topic of the sentence.   Manipulation of word order can indicate the topic and its emphasis (comment).   The example give in Palmer (1981) is â€Å"The man over there I do not like very much.†Ã‚   Similarly, new information in a sentence is usually given more toward the end of the sentence and is accompanied by a rise in pitch (Palmer, 1981).Thus the ordering of the words and the rise and fall of their pitch can give indication to the meaning.Other utterances are less a function of giving new information and more a function of naming an action.   These actions can be explicit, which literally name the act, and implicit, which do not.   Certain presuppositions are contained within implicit actions.   These actions may not be obviously named, but they are known because the listener is familiar with the context of the utterance.  Ã‚   This presupposition can be contained in other remarks as well, such as â€Å"John drank another beer,† which implies he has had at least on e drink.   The author asserts that it is difficult to make a distinction between what is explicitly stated and what is presupposed (Palmer, 1981).Finally, implications may be even more far removed from the explicit meaning of the words.   For example, if a person makes a statement â€Å"It’s hot in here,† he may be actually implying that he would like someone to turn on the air conditioner.   The conversation is reduced in that the individual does not have to fill in the intermediate information for the listener (Palmer, 1981).   A question of â€Å"Did you take out the garbage?† may be followed by â€Å"It isn’t Thursday† would have no meaning to anyone who didn’t know that the garbage man comes on Thursday.   However, a married couple would have the perfect understanding of this exchange because of their shared context.Spoken English and written English are composed of words, which have been produced from a variety of sources and through a variety of processes.   In addition, these words are arranged in such a way as to give them the power of meaning in context.   While written conversation is more in tune with grammatical constructions, spoken language also carries the nuances of tone, stress, pitch, volume and even implicit meanings.   Thus, meaning can be derived from words, sentences, sound and visual cues and even an implicit understanding of context.Word economy has created more words from current words while preserving the meanings.   This reduces the need for new words to be invented and aids in the process of understanding.   In addition, the same concept can be applied to sentences.   The original grammatical meaning of the sentence can be expressed by sound and visual cues from the speaker in many different ways.   As a result, the meanings may be multiple while the actual words that make up the sentence remain the same.   Clearly, the evolution of both written and spoken language is a dynamic force that will continue for all time.ReferencesPalmer, Frank R. Semantics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1981.Yule, George. The Study of Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge : Cambridge UP, 2006.

School Health Plan

School health programs are becoming more and more popular as health concerns grow. Students need to be aware at younger ages of the concerns that face our society, and the ways that they can combat these concerns through good health knowledge. Several school districts have implemented comprehensive health curriculums and programs, and many states have standards regarding health education. The following articles detail different health programs and concerns. In Michigan, there exists state content standards in the area of health education. The Michigan curriculum calls for health education to occur at least 50 hours per year from pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade, with a curriculum that is developmentally appropriate at every level and builds on skills and knowledge each year. Further, it calls for school staff to collaborate on healthy behaviors with the school health teacher, so that health can be a priority within the school. The article suggests that classroom teachers, gym teachers, cafeteria workers, classroom teachers, and other professionals work together to help students with healthy behaviors and knowledge (Michigan Board). There is a general concern that although students’ unhealthy behaviors are fewer than they previously were, there are still too many students who are engaging in these unhealthy behaviors. The target behaviors the program is looking at are healthy eating, physical activity, social/communication, sexual behavior, alcohol and drugs. The program aims to teach students specific knowledge about how certain behaviors can be harmful, and how they can make healthier choices. It also aims to teach them general health principles and how to apply these in social, school, and family relationships (Michigan Board). This curriculum is to be taught by qualified health instructors. A qualified teacher will have a certification in health education or family and consumer science, in addition to a teaching license, and/or will have undergone another type of training program. The teacher will not act alone, but will collaborate with other teachers in the building in order to incorporate healthy choices into all aspects of the school day. The article is careful to say that this collaboration must not take the place of health classes, but must be in addition to them (Michigan Board). The article’s research shows that students who are involved in effective health classes show fewer risk behaviors and more pro-social behaviors. They are also more on-task in the school environment and less likely to be distracted by health problems (Michigan Board). Two professors of health education wrote an example lesson plan for integrating health into the math curriculum. Students can study the number of fruit and vegetable servings needed in a day, and can practice adding and subtracting the number of servings needed depending on how many have been eaten so far. They can also look at what constitutes a serving, and some basic nutritional information about different fruits and vegetables. This lesson neatly involves both math and nutrition, and ends with students being able to taste fruits and vegetables that they have brought in from home. Lessons like this can be created to integrate health into any subject area (James and Adams). Different student groups have different needs, and educators have different concerns for them. For example, students with special needs may have certain dental concerns that typical students don’t have. Students with disabilities may experience drooling, teeth grinding, problems swallowing, or have to take a lot of sugary medication. There are several other oral issues that may affect them as well, depending on the disability. What’s more, these students may not have the comprehension, or physical skills to engage in typical oral hygiene, and their caretakers may not see it as a priority. For that reason, health teachers need to emphasize the role that oral hygiene plays for these students, and encourage either them or their caregivers to help them maintain good oral health, as appropriate. Health teachers can also help these students to obtain proper dental care and, if necessary, orthodontic care (Perlman and Miller). The authors outline a program that can be implemented for each student to encourage good oral hygiene. Students should be given reinforcers when they complete the target behaviors, i. e. brushing, flossing, etc. This plan can be implemented in a variety of ways to encourage good oral health (Perlman and Miller). Other states have different issues with health care. Texas, for example, has been having problems paying for teachers’ health plans. They have recently begun offering teachers an additional $1000 that can be used for additional health care coverage, or whatever else they want. This is only one measure that is necessary to help the people make good health decisions. Having enough money to pay for health costs will enable people to have more options (Keller). Texas is not the only state that is having problems, however. Many school districts are having issues in negotiations over health care, including districts in Ohio, Wisconsin, Rhode Island, and New Jersey. Money is tight in all of these districts, and teachers in some cases are going on strike to protect their rights to health care and appropriate salaries. Funding is a serious issue in the area of health care right now (Ponessa). Another major concern in the area of health is that teenagers don’t have enough access to health care, especially preventative services. A recent article details the problems. Students whose families do not have health insurance cannot afford to see regular doctors. Even though who do see regular doctors are at a possible disadvantage, because the doctors are not trained to handle actual preventative care, such as weight loss counseling, cholesterol reduction counseling, sexual health screenings (including for STDs and more routine Pap smears for women), quitting smoking, and HIV awareness. Doctors address these issues in less than 5% of cases in which students go to the doctor for preventative care purposes (Santelli et al). Additionally, teenagers do have access to certain specialized clinics, like public health clinics, Planned Parenthood, etc. Even teens without insurance can go see doctors at these places, but again, preventative care is rare. Also, many of these clinics are set up for adults, and may not be friendly to the teens who enter them. Instead, more health care options need to be available to teenagers so that they can take advantage of preventative care and make healthy decisions with their doctors. Teens see doctors as a reliable source of information, and they trust doctors, so it is obvious that doctors need to be involved in this situation (Santelli et al). Ideally, the authors think, schools should provide health services, because: â€Å"School health programs provide health services, health education, a healthy school environment, social and psychological services, physical education programs, school nutrition program, health promotion for teachers and staff, and integrated efforts with parents and the community† (Santelli et al). That is, schools can provide a totally comprehensive program, which reaches out to all aspects of a student’s life. School-based programs can increase access to health services for students who need them most, including poor and minority students. There is not yet any consensus on how and why schools should provide these services, but the opportunities and benefits are obvious. In addition to reaching certain populations of students, schools also feature a captive environment for students. This means that the delivery of services is easier, since students are already there, and spend several hours in school everyday. For students who may live several miles from the nearest public clinic, school-based services are much more convenient, and much more likely to draw students in (Santelli et al). The study then looks at which health programs are effective, and why. Schools and managed care operations will not want to provide services if they are not cost effective, so the study of benefits is important. One finding is that traditional hearing and vision screening is not particularly beneficial, as these conditions are not considered a threat to the school population. However, newer research shows that when schools attempt to vaccinate students, they are able to get up to 75% to participate. Along these lines, should a contagious disease (like measles) break out among students, schools can quickly identify the source, and vaccinate and/or treat students to stop the spread. Additionally, there is some evidence that STD screenings and pregnancy-prevention education has reduced the spread of STDs and the number of teen pregnancies. The authors recommend that local public health concerns be taken into account when schools are choosing what services to provide (Santelli et al). Schools and managed care organizations continue to be concerned with cost. Because no true studies on cost effectiveness are available, researchers have had to look at how well programs have done in changing behaviors. Also, health expenditures for major issues, like hospitalizations related to chronic conditions or STDs, pregnancy, etc. ay mean that organizations cannot stretch funding to provide appropriate preventative care, even after acknowledging that doing so may reduce these costs. So, further research on cost effectiveness and ways to treat adolescents is needed (Santelli et al). Examples of communities where health programs have been put in place successfully are possibly a mong the most encouraging stories available. A community in Michigan had low attendance rates and test scores, and high dropout, teen crime, teen pregnancy, and suspension rates. Their goal was to turn the school community around. To do so, they consulted community members, and ultimately settled on a plan that reflected Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They offered better school lunches, more physical education, more health education, counseling services, health screenings and partnerships with local doctors, free daycare for teen parents, and preschool programs for three and four year olds. Over a five year period, the school saw a significant rise in attendance and graduation, and a significant drop in crime rates, dropout rates, and more. Test scores rose as well, because students were feeling better and were better cared for within the school. This community shows that by focusing on the students’ real needs instead of test scores, they were able to improve the quality of their programs and their positive effect on students’ lives (Cooper). The final article looks at how to create a health plan within a school, specifically relating to individual student needs. Many students have chronic health concerns, such as epilepsy or diabetes. In treating student health concerns, schools must be aware of any existing medical conditions their students have, and be prepared to treat them as needed. This includes administering any necessary medication, as well as knowing any specialized emergency procedures (EP). II. School Health Plan In developing a health plan for my own school building, I am looking to all of this research to see what is appropriate. First of all, it is obvious that the school needs a health program, because these show a significant benefit to students at all levels and in all areas of their lives – social, academic, health-wise, etc. When proposing this plan to school employees, the board of education, and the community, I will refer to these studies to show the need for such a plan. First, all students within the school need to have health education on a continuing basis. That is, health education should ideally be offered for about ninety minutes per week (three thirty-minute sessions) throughout the school year. In secondary schools, where schedules are more limited, health education should be offered everyday for one semester per year. Health classes will begin in kindergarten and carry through twelfth grade. Topics are to include current nutritional guidelines, selecting and preparing healthy meals, the role of physical education in health, anti-smoking, anti-drugs, frank information about teen sex and its consequences (to include HIV, all other STDs, pregnancy, and also social/emotional concerns), alcohol consumption, pro-social behavior, eating disorders, and any other community concerns. No students should be excused from these classes unless parents insist on religious grounds. Additionally, all students should attend physical education everyday from kindergarten through twelfth grade. Younger students need only twenty minutes; older students (middle school and high school) should have thirty minutes. Physical education must cover not only the basic sports, but also alternative fitness activities, like weight lifting, swimming (if there is access to a pool), walking, cardio equipment, etc. Physical education should take into account each student’s needs whenever possible (i. e. if a student is already physically fit, more opportunities can be given; if a student is overweight, starting slow should be allowed). Physical education teachers should coordinate with coaches of intramural teams, and encourage all students to participate. Some of these teams should be non-competing. The school should also offer health and counseling services. All students should be screened for any diseases that are spreading within the community (STDs, meningitis, pertussis, etc. as necessary) and immunized if appropriate. Students should also be offered the opportunity to see the school nurse (one should be in every building; ideally, one per every 400 students) if they are ill or have other health concerns. Preventative care should be emphasized and available, especially for athletes. Counseling should be available for any students with concerns about eating disorders, suicide, depression, relationship difficulties, abuse, unwanted pregnancy, or any other reason. Students should be encouraged to seek help if they need it, and if other students report that someone needs help, counselors should follow up with that student within the week. Anonymous reporting should be available for students who are concerned about others. Special programs for students who are seeking to quit smoking, alcohol or drugs, or who are pregnant should be provided. If possible, free daycare should be provided to keep teen parents in schools. Finally, any and all students who have health concerns or preexisting conditions should be able to get whatever help they need, whether it’s a permanent bathroom or nurse pass, or scheduled times during the day to take medication. All school personnel involved with the child (classroom teacher, nurse, special teachers, etc. ) should be aware of the student’s health concerns, including emergency procedures and allergies. With this plan in place, students should have their needs met in all different ways, and this will increase their focus in the classroom setting.

Should We Buy Organic - 2300 Words

While grocery shopping many people are looking for products that taste and look the best, have the most nutritional value, and are cost efficient, but now there is one more factor to consider. Should you buy organic? For instance you are in the produce section and looking at the apples. The apples all have a vibrant red color and they have the same shape, but one section has a little sticker that says â€Å"organic†. Does this sticker make the apple taste better or have more nutrients? Will organic be worth the higher price? These factors and more have been studied and researched by experts, and the results are in. Organic is neither safer, nor healthier than conventional food. In order for farmers to put the label â€Å"organic on their product†¦show more content†¦Once the guidelines are met a farm is organic certified. If a food product has a â€Å"USDA organic† label, it contains 95 percent organic ingredients, and has had a government- approved authorize r inspect the farm where the product was produced to make sure the farms followed USDA requirements (Organic Labeling np). Before 2002, states followed varying rules for certification and labeling organic products(Organic Labeling np). Now all organic foods are grown and processed according to strict national standards set by the USDA (Organic Labeling np). If food has the USDA Organic label than that means it was produced and processed following the USDA guidelines. The seal is voluntary but many producers choose to place it on their products. The organic label is not taken lightly and any product that has the label â€Å"organic† must be USDA certified. In order to put a label that says â€Å"100% organic† the product must contain all organic ingredients. Products that are 95 percent organic can only have the label â€Å"organic†. Items with 70 percent organic ingredients can only deem the label â€Å"made with organic ingredients† and may not use the official USDA seal. Products with less than 70 percent organic ingredients may claim to be an organic product. These items however can put on the ingredient list which ingredients are organic.